what did you find of most value from the readings (you can include videos) in this course and why?

• Journal List
• CBE Life Sci Educ
• 5.15(iv); Winter 2016
• PMC5132380

CBE Life Sci Educ. 2016 Wintertime; xv(4): es6.

Effective Educational Videos: Principles and Guidelines for Maximizing Student Learning from Video Content

Kathryn Due east. Perez, Monitoring Editor

Received 2016 Mar 15; Revised 2016 May 21; Accustomed 2016 May 23.

Abstract

Educational videos accept get an important part of college education, providing an important content-commitment tool in many flipped, blended, and online classes. Effective use of video every bit an educational tool is enhanced when instructors consider three elements: how to manage cognitive load of the video; how to maximize student engagement with the video; and how to promote active learning from the video. This essay reviews literature relevant to each of these principles and suggests practical ways instructors tin can use these principles when using video every bit an educational tool.

Video has go an important role of higher pedagogy. It is integrated as part of traditional courses, serves as a cornerstone of many blended courses, and is often the chief information-delivery mechanism in online courses. Several meta-analyses have shown that technology can enhance learning (east.g., Means et al., 2010 ; Schmid et al., 2014 ), and multiple studies have shown that video, specifically, can be a highly effective educational tool (eastward.yard., Allen and Smith, 2012 ; Kay, 2012 ; Lloyd and Robertson, 2012 ; Rackaway, 2012 ; Hsin and Cigas, 2013 ; Stockwell et al., 2015 ). Video may have item value for student preparation in biology classes, in role because students may find it more engaging (Stockwell et al., 2015 ) and because it tin can be well suited to illuminating the abstract or hard-to-visualize phenomena that are the focus of and so many biology classes (e.grand., Dash et al., 2016 ; run into Video Views and Reviews features in CBE—Life Sciences Education for other examples). The medium is not inherently constructive, still; Guo et al. (2014) have shown that students often disregard big segments of educational videos, while MacHardy and Pardos (2015) demonstrate that some videos contribute piddling to pupil functioning. What, and so, are the principles that allow instructors to choose or develop videos that are effective in moving students toward the desired learning outcomes? Consideration of three elements for video design and implementation can aid instructors maximize video's utility in the biological science classroom:

• Cognitive load

• Student date

• Active learning

Together, these elements provide a solid base for the evolution and use of video as an effective educational tool.

Cognitive LOAD

One of the primary considerations when constructing educational materials, including video, is cerebral load. Cognitive load theory, initially articulated by Sweller (1988 , 1989 , 1994 ), suggests that retentivity has several components. Sensory retentiveness is transient, collecting information from the environment. Information from sensory retentivity may be selected for temporary storage and processing in working retentiveness, which has very express capacity. This processing is a prerequisite for encoding into long-term memory, which has virtually unlimited chapters. Because working memory is very limited, the learner must be selective near what data from sensory memory to pay attention to during the learning process, an observation that has important implications for creating educational materials.

Based on this model of memory, cognitive load theory suggests that whatsoever learning experience has three components. The get-go of these is intrinsic load, which is inherent to the bailiwick under study and is determined in function by the degrees of connectivity within the field of study. The common example given to illustrate a discipline with low intrinsic load is a word pair (e.g., bluish = azul); grammar, on the other hand, is a bailiwick with a high intrinsic load due to its many levels of connectivity and conditional relationships. In an instance from biological science, learning the names of the stages of mitosis would accept lower intrinsic load than agreement the process of cell bicycle command. The 2d component of any learning experience is germane load, which is the level of cognitive activeness necessary to reach the desired learning outcome—for example, to make the comparisons, practice the analysis, and elucidate the steps necessary to master the lesson. The ultimate goal of these activities is for the learner to incorporate the subject under study into a schema of richly connected ideas. The 3rd component of a learning experience is extraneous load, which is cognitive effort that does not help the learner toward the desired learning result. Information technology is oft characterized equally load that arises from a poorly designed lesson (due east.thousand., confusing instructions, extra data) merely may also be load that arises due to stereotype threat or imposter syndrome. These concepts are more fully articulated and to some extent critiqued in an excellent review by deJong (2010) .

These definitions have implications for design of educational materials and experiences. Specifically, instructors should seek to minimize inapplicable cognitive load and should consider the intrinsic cognitive load of the subject when amalgam learning experiences, carefully structuring them when the fabric has high intrinsic load. Considering working memory has a express capacity, and information must be processed by working retentiveness to be encoded in long-term memory, it is of import to prompt working memory to have, procedure, and send to long-term retentiveness only the most crucial information (Ibrahim et al., 2012 ).

The cerebral theory of multimedia learning builds on the cognitive load theory, noting that working memory has ii channels for information acquisition and processing: a visual/pictorial channel and an auditory/verbal-processing channel (Mayer, 2001 ; Mayer and Moreno, 2003 ). Although each channel has limited capacity, the utilise of the two channels can facilitate the integration of new information into existing cerebral structures. Using both channels maximizes working retention's capacity—but either aqueduct tin exist overwhelmed by high cognitive load. Thus, pattern strategies that manage the cognitive load for both channels in multimedia learning materials promise to heighten learning.

These theories give rising to several recommendations about educational videos (meet Tabular array 1). Based on the premise that effective learning experiences minimize extraneous cognitive load, optimize germane cerebral load, and manage intrinsic cognitive lead, four constructive practices emerge.

Tabular array one.

Practices to maximize student learning from educational videos

Element to consider	Recommendation	Rationale	Examples
Cognitive load	Utilise signaling to highlight of import information.	Tin reduce extraneous load.	Primal words on screen highlighting important elements
		Can heighten germane load.	Changes in colour or contrast to emphasize organization of information
			Changes in color or contrast to emphasize relationships inside information
			Brief out-of-video text explaining purpose and context for video (e.grand., learning objective for video)
	Use segmenting to chunk information.	Manages intrinsic load.	Brusk videos (6 minutes or less)
		Can enhance germane load.	Chapters or click-forward questions within videos
	Utilise weeding to eliminate extraneous data.	Reduces extraneous load.	Eliminating music
			Eliminating complex backgrounds
	Match modality past using auditory and visual channels to convey complementary information.	Can enhance germane load.	Khan Academy–fashion tutorial videos that illustrate and explain phenomena
			Narrated animations
Pupil engagement	Proceed each video cursory.	Increases pct of each video that students watch; may increase total watch time.	Multiple videos for a lesson, each ≤ 6 minutes
		May decrease mind wandering.
	Use conversational language.	Creates a sense of social partnership between student and instructor, prompting the student to try harder to brand sense of the lesson.	Placing the student in the lesson by use of "your" rather than "the" during explanations
			Use of "I" to indicate the narrator'due south perspective
	Speak relatively apace and with enthusiasm.	Increases percent of each video that students picket.	Speaking rates in the 185–254 words per minute range
		May increase sense of social partnership between pupil and teacher.	Expressions of teacher excitement, such every bit "I love the side by side part; the manner the feed-forrard machinery works is and so elegant," or "Consider how the cell solves this catchy trouble of needing to regulate iii genes in sequence; it'south really cool."
	Create and/or package videos to emphasize relevance to the course in which they are used.	Increases percentage of each video that students watch.	Videos created for the class in which they are going to be used, with instructor narration explaining links to preceding material
		May increase germane cognitive load by helping students recognize connections.	Explanatory text to situate video in form
Agile learning	Consider these strategies for promoting agile learning:
	Packaging video with interactive questions.	May increment germane cognitive load, ameliorate memory via the testing effect, and improve educatee self-assessment.	Integrate questions into videos with HapYak or Zaption, equally described by Obodo and Baskauf (2015)
			Follow brusk videos with interactive questions within an LMS, as done by Keithly and colleagues (2015) , or within Google Forms, as done by Caudel and colleagues (2015)
	Use interactive features that give students control.	Increases student ownership and may increment germane cognitive load.	Create "chapters" within a video using HapYak or YouTube Comment
	Use guiding questions.	May increase germane cognitive load, reduce extraneous cognitive load, and improve student cocky-assessment.	Senchina (2011) provides guiding questions for videos designed to innovate physiology students to professional ideals related to experimenter–subject area interactions, such as the following: "Discover the discipline's behavior and responsiveness during the aridity period. What changes every bit the subject area becomes dehydrated? What problems does he accept? Observe the experimenters' beliefs and responsiveness as dehydration progresses. What practise they do differently? Why?"
	Make video part of a larger homework assignment.	May increase student motivation, germane cognitive load, and educatee self-cess.	Parcel videos with a serial of questions or problems that ask students to apply the concepts from the videos. iBiology Education videos (east.g., What Can You Acquire with a Low-cal Microscope?) provide one example (iBiology, 2016 )

Signaling, which is also known as cueing (deKoning et al., 2009 ), is the apply of on-screen text or symbols to highlight important data. For example, signaling may be provided by the appearance of two or three central words (Mayer and Johnson, 2008 ; Ibrahim et al., 2012 ), a change in color or contrast (deKoning et al., 2009 ), or a symbol that draws attention to a region of a screen (e.1000., an arrow; deKoning et al., 2009 ). By highlighting the key information, signaling helps direct learner attention, thus targeting particular elements of the video for processing in the working memory. This tin reduce extraneous load by helping novice learners with the task of determining which elements within a circuitous tool are of import, and it tin also increase germane load by emphasizing the organization of and connections within the information. Mayer and Moreno (2003) and deKoning et al. (2009) accept shown that this approach improves students' ability to retain and transfer new knowledge from animations, and Ibrahim et al. (2012) have shown that these effects extend to video.

The benefits of signaling are complemented by segmenting, or the chunking of data in a video lesson. Segmenting allows learners to engage with pocket-size pieces of new information and gives them control over the flow of new information. As such, it manages intrinsic load and can also increment germane load by emphasizing the structure of the information. Segmenting can exist accomplished both by making shorter videos and past including "click forrard" pauses within a video, such equally using YouTube Comment or HapYak to provide students with a question and prompting them to click forward afterwards completion. Both types of segmenting have been shown to be important for student engagement with videos (Zhang et al., 2006 ; Guo et al., 2014 ) and learning from video (Zhang et al., 2006 ; Ibrahim et al., 2012 ).

Weeding, or the elimination of interesting simply extraneous data that does non contribute to the learning goal, can provide farther benefits. For example, music, complex backgrounds, or extra features within an animation require the learner to judge whether he or she should be paying attending to them, which increases extraneous load and can reduce learning. Chiefly, information that increases extraneous load changes every bit the learner moves from novice toward expert status. That is, data that may exist inapplicable for a novice learner may actually be helpful for a more expert-like learner, while information that is essential for a novice may serve equally an already known distraction for an proficient. Thus, it is important that the instructor consider his or her learners when weeding educational videos, including data that is necessary for their processing but eliminating information that they do not need to accomplish the learning goal and that may overload their working retention. Ibrahim et al. (2012) has shown that this treatment can improve retention and transfer of new information from video.

Finally, the utility of video lessons can be maximized by matching modality to content. By using both the audio/exact aqueduct and the visual/pictorial aqueduct to convey new information, and by plumbing equipment the particular type of information to the nearly appropriate channel, instructors can enhance the germane cognitive load of a learning experience. For example, showing an blitheness of a process on screen while narrating information technology uses both channels to elucidate the process, thus giving the learner dual and complementary streams of data to highlight features that should exist processed in working retention. In contrast, showing the animation while too showing printed text uses only the visual channel and thus overloads this channel and impedes learning (Mayer and Moreno, 2003 ). In another example, using a "talking caput" video to explicate a complex process makes productive use simply of the verbal channel (because watching the speaker does not convey additional information), whereas a Khan Academy–style tutorial that provides symbolic sketches to illustrate the verbal explanation uses both channels to give complementary data. Using both channels to convey appropriate and complementary information has been shown to increase students' retention and ability to transfer information (Mayer and Moreno, 2003 ) and to increase student engagement with videos (Guo et al., 2014 ; Thomson et al., 2014 ).

STUDENT Date

Another lens through which to consider educational video is student engagement. The idea is simple: if students do not watch videos, they cannot learn from them. Lessons on promoting educatee appointment derive from earlier research on multimedia instruction and more recent work on videos used inside MOOCs (massive open online courses; see Table 1).

The first and most of import guideline for maximizing student attention to educational video is to keep it short. Guo and colleagues examined the length of time students watched streaming videos within iv edX MOOCs, analyzing results from 6.9 one thousand thousand video-watching sessions (Guo et al., 2014 ). They observed that the median date fourth dimension for videos less than vi minutes long was close to 100%–that is, students tended to watch the whole video (although at that place are significant outliers; encounter the paper for more than complete information). As videos lengthened, nonetheless, student engagement dropped, such that the median date time with 9- to 12-minute videos was ∼50%, and the median engagement time with 12- to twoscore-minute videos was ∼20%. In fact, the maximum median date time for a video of whatsoever length was vi minutes. Making videos longer than six–nine minutes is therefore likely to be wasted try. In complementary work, Risko et al. (2012) showed 1-hr videos to students in a lab setting, probing student self-reports of mind wandering four times in each lecture and testing student retention of lecture textile after the lecture. They found that pupil report of mind wandering increased and retention of material decreased across the video lecture (Risko et al., 2012) .

Another method to continue students engaged is to use a conversational style. Called the personalization principle by Mayer, the use of conversational rather than formal linguistic communication during multimedia didactics has been shown to have a large result on students' learning, perhaps because a conversational style encourages students to develop a sense of social partnership with the narrator that leads to greater appointment and endeavour (Mayer, 2008 ). In add-on, some research suggests that it tin be important for video narrators to speak relatively chop-chop and with enthusiasm. In their study examining educatee engagement with MOOC videos, Guo and colleagues observed that student date was dependent on the narrator's speaking rate, with student engagement increasing every bit speaking charge per unit increased (Guo et al., 2014 ). It can be tempting for video narrators to speak slowly to help ensure that students grasp important ideas, merely including in-video questions, "chapters," and speed control can requite students command over this feature—and increasing narrator speed appears to promote educatee involvement.

Instructors can likewise promote student engagement with educational videos by creating or packaging them in a way that conveys that the textile is for these students in this class. Ane of the benefits for instructors in using educational videos tin exist the ability to reuse them for other classes and other semesters. When creating or choosing videos, all the same, information technology is important to consider whether they were created for the type of surroundings in which they will be used. For example, a face-to-face classroom session that is videotaped and presented within an online class may feel less engaging than a video that is created with an online surroundings equally the initial target (Guo et al., 2014 ). A video'south adaptability tin can exist enhanced, however: when reusing videos, instructors can package them for a particular course using text outside the video to contextualize the relevance for that particular course and lesson.

Active LEARNING

As biology educators, we have abundant show that active learning in the classroom provides clear advantages over passive encounters with course material through lecture (east.k., Knight and Wood, 2005 ; Haak et al., 2011 ; Freeman et al., 2014 ). Similarly, elements that promote cerebral activity during video viewing can enhance educatee learning from this medium (see Tabular array 1).

Schacter and Szpunar (2015) suggest a conceptual framework for enhancing learning from educational videos that identifies online learning as a type of cocky-regulated learning. Cocky-regulation of learning requires students to monitor their own learning, to identify learning difficulties, and to answer to these judgments; in other words, it requires students to actively build and interrogate mental models, practicing metacognition about the learning procedure. Novices within a field, however, have difficulty accurately judging their understanding, frequently overestimating their learning (Bjork et al., 2013 ). This problem may be enhanced when new information is delivered via video, which students study as easier to learn and more than memorable than text (Salomon, 1994 ; Choi and Johnson, 2005 ). Incorporating prompts for students to engage in the type of cognitive activity necessary to process information—to engage in active learning—can aid them build and test mental models, explicitly converting video watching from a passive to an agile-learning event. The means to practice this tin vary, but the following strategies take demonstrated success in some contexts.

Parcel Video with Interactive Questions

Szpunar et al. compared the test functioning of students who answered questions interpolated between ∼v min video lectures and students who did unrelated arithmetic issues between the videos, finding that the students in the interpolated question group performed significantly better on subsequent tests of the material and reported less heed wandering (Szpunar et al., 2013 ). Students who received the interpolated questions as well exhibited increased notation taking, reported the learning event equally less "mentally taxing," and reported less anxiety nigh the final test. These results suggest that interpolated questions may improve student learning from video through several mechanisms. Starting time, they may help to optimize cognitive load by decreasing extraneous load (i.due east., feet about an upcoming test) and increasing germane load (i.e., notation taking, reduced mind wandering). Farther, interpolated questions may produce some of their benefit past tapping into the "testing effect," in which recollect of important information strengthens students' retentiveness of and ability to utilise the recalled information (Roediger and Karpicke, 2006 ; Brame and Biel, 2015 ). Finally, interpolated questions may help students engage in more than accurate self-assessment (Szpunar et al., 2014 ), an important do good for a medium that students may perceive as "easier" than text. Tools like HapYak and Zaption can also let instructors to embed questions straight into video and to give specific feedback based on student response. This approach has similar benefits to interpolated questions in increasing student performance on subsequent assessments (Vural, 2013 ) and has the additional benefit of making the video interactive (come across post-obit department).

Use Interactive Features That Give Students Command

Zhang and colleagues compared the impact of interactive and noninteractive video on students' learning in a information science course (Zhang et al., 2006 ). Students who were able to control movement through the video, selecting important sections to review and moving backward when desired, demonstrated ameliorate achievement of learning outcomes and greater satisfaction. One unproblematic way to reach this level of interactivity is past using YouTube Annotate, HapYak, or another tool to introduce labeled "capacity" into a video. This not only has the benefit of giving students control but also can demonstrate the organization, increasing the germane load of the lesson.

Make Video Part of a Larger Homework Assignment

MacHardy and Pardos (2015) have developed a model relating educational video characteristics to students' functioning on subsequent assessments. One observation from their analysis of Khan Academy videos was that videos that offered the greatest benefits to students were highly relevant to associated exercises. This result is supported by results observed in a "educational activity-every bit-research" projection at Vanderbilt University (for groundwork on teaching as research, see www.cirtl.net). Specifically, Faizan Zubair participated in the Bold Fellows programme, in which graduate students develop online learning materials for incorporation into a faculty mentor's course then investigate their affect in education-as-research projects. Zubair developed videos on that were embedded in a larger homework assignment in Paul Laibinis's chemical engineering class and found that students valued the videos and that the videos improved students' understanding of difficult concepts when compared with a semester when the videos were not used in conjunction with the homework (Zubair and Laibinis, 2015 ; see also Summary).

The important matter to keep in heed is that watching a video can exist a passive experience, much as reading tin can be. To brand the most of our educational videos, nosotros need to help students do the processing and self-evaluation that will lead to the learning we desire to run across.

SUMMARY

Video may provide a meaning means to amend student learning and enhance student engagement in biology courses (Allen and Smith, 2012 ; Kay, 2012 ; Lloyd and Robertson, 2012 ; Rackaway, 2012 ; Hsin and Cigas, 2013 ; Stockwell et al., 2015 ). To maximize the benefit from educational videos, however, information technology is important to keep in mind the iii key components of cognitive load, elements that touch on date, and elements that promote active learning. Luckily, consideration of these elements converges on a few recommendations:

• Keep videos cursory and targeted on learning goals.

• Use audio and visual elements to convey advisable parts of an caption; consider how to make these elements complementary rather than redundant.

• Use signaling to highlight important ideas or concepts.

• Use a conversational, enthusiastic style to enhance engagement.

• Embed videos in a context of active learning by using guiding questions, interactive elements, or associated homework assignments.

Acknowledgments

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Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5132380/

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